The Human Function in Plato and Aristotle Essay Example for Free

The Human Function in Plato and Aristotle Essay Plato and Aristotle have similar perspectives about human function. They also share some of their ideas about how human function is related to other philosophical notions such as virtue, good, justice, and the soul. According to Aristotle the chief good (and the human function, which has its end in itself) is happiness. But his definition of happiness is different from what ordinary people usually think. Happiness is neither pleasure nor wealth, nor is it even a kind of honor (Nicomachean Ethics, Chapter 5). It is rather a final state and all human activities attempt to reach this final state. Plato holds that the human function is justice and that it ensures happiness for both the individual and the society when practiced correctly. But this ideal of justice is not for individuals who have special professions or â€Å"crafts. † Justice is rather an ideal that every person should pursue for himself/herself. While their definitions seem to be more or less similar, the two philosophers differ on the relative importance of these notions. That is to say, while according to Plato justice is the most important ideal (and happiness is its derivative), Aristotle holds the opinion that happiness is the most significant good which has its end in itself. A correct definition of happiness however is not simple pleasure, according to Aristotle, but a state of moral well-being (which assumes both justice and virtue.) The two philosophers agree on the issue that in order to be happy, we must exercise our human function (and reach the ideals this function requires). They also seem to agree that the human function (justice for Plato, happiness for Aristotle) is impossible to exercise without being virtuous. All these concepts refer to each other and they sometimes even seem more or less equal. This paper will therefore argue that the two philosophers share similar views on the nature of the human function and how happiness and virtue relate to this notion. It will also be argued, however, that they disagree on the relative importance of these concepts (and that some of their philosophical definitions are different). The human function in Book I of Plato’s Republic is defined towards the end of the book, on pages 29 to 31. Plato’s definition of the human function comes after a long and complex argument on the nature of wealth, justice, craft, and virtue (and how they all refer to each other). Plato does not seem to favor the particular idea that justice is a kind of craft [techne] (Republic, 7.) â€Å"Craft† here is taken to mean something similar to â€Å"business† or â€Å"expertise† and some crafts mentioned in that part of the dialogue are: cooking, medicine, boatbuilding, horse breeding, being the captain of a ship, lyre playing, â€Å"soldiery and musicianship† etc (Republic 6-9). What all these crafts have in common is that they are individualistic and not universal. Justice will therefore differ from this definition because the exercise of justice is a universal goal. Justice therefore cannot be a kind of techne and there are two major reasons for this exclusion. The first reason is that if justice is a kind of techne, then only those who have justice as their profession would be expected to exercise justice, as opposed to all human beings (only those who have justice as their profession). It makes no difference whether an individual is a cook or a doctor or a boat-builder or a horse breeder in that regard: every professional individual is expected to be just and virtuous in his/her life. The second reason is related to the earlier discussion about the nature of wealth and how it relates to happiness and morality. If justice is a kind of techne, that would mean that the person who exercises justice could make money out of it, being a professional. â€Å"Justice† in that regard would be nothing but another kind of business to earn a living. Plato however rejects this idea very strongly: justice cannot be bought or sold. Justice is a kind of human good but it is neither material nor has a fixed price. Justice is superior to wealth, since it is â€Å"a thing more valuable than even a large quantity of gold† (Republic, 13). When we come to the final pages of Book I, we see that Socrates gives the example of the human body to illustrate what justice means. The specific function of the human ear is to hear, the specific function of the human eye is to see, etc. And the function of the human body as a whole is to be healthy and harmonious. The soul has the special function of ruling over the body in a way that will ensure the happiness of the whole. That is the say, the soul is responsible for both its own happiness and the well-being of the body (which it commands). There are strong political implications of this statement: the rulers of a city are responsible for the happiness of the people they rule (like good shepherds). Moving over to Aristotle, we see that the Nicomachean Ethics opens with a similar discussion about the nature of crafts and how they refer to notions of justice. Aristotle claims that â€Å"where there are ends apart from the actions, it is the nature of the products to be better than the activities† (Nicomachean Ethics, Chapter 1). This distinction is of great importance. Aristotle draws a line between goals and actions: actions are towards the fulfillment of goals. Aristotle, like Plato, lists several professions and remarks that these â€Å"arts† have specific goals. The art of strategy has as its goal victory, the â€Å"medical art† has as its goal health, the art of shipbuilding has as its goal the construction of a vessel, etc (Nicomachean Ethics, Chapter 1). But these specific goals cannot stand for the human function by themselves. Just like Plato, Aristotle dismisses the idea that justice is any kind of craft. Chapter 2 of Nicomachean Ethics explains this idea powerfully. According to Aristotle, politics is the â€Å"most authoritative art and that which is most truly the master art. † Politics â€Å"uses the rest of the sciences† and therefore â€Å"the end of this science must include those of the others. † Aristotle also claims that this goal (justice) is the same for both â€Å"a single man and for a state. † We may perhaps paraphrase this as: justice for individuals concerns ethics, justice for society concerns politics. We may furthermore claim that, while the human function on the level of individuals is the exercise of virtue, the human function on the level of societies would be political justice. When an individual is virtuous he can reach happiness. When a community exercises justice (or has just rulers) they can reach happiness as a whole. Plato and Aristotle reach very similar conclusions and even though they seem to be discussing justice on an individual level at first, soon we understand that their real intention is to discuss politics. The conclusions they draw (and even the examples they use) concern communities and in particular, the city-state [polis]. Another important aspect of the human function is the exercise of reason. Aristotle, in the Nicomachean Ethics, defines reason as the characteristic human trait (the main distinction between an animal and human being). According to Aristotle, biological facts such as â€Å"nutrition and growth† cannot be considered as characteristically human traits. Even the â€Å"life of perception† cannot be called the human function because â€Å"it also seems to be common to the horse, the ox, and every animal† (Nicomachean Ethics, Chapter 7). Aristotle finally arrives at a definition of the human function which includes virtue, reason, and goodness: â€Å"human good turns out to be the activity of soul in accordance with virtue, and if there are more than one virtue, in accordance with the best and most complete† (Nicomachean Ethics, Chapter 7). The human good (or the human function) is therefore the activity of the rational soul and not the human body. â€Å"By human virtue we mean not that of the body but that of the soul; and happiness also we call an activity of soul† says Aristotle (Nicomachean Ethics, Chapter 13). Plato, interestingly, uses the same example of the soul to explain justice. â€Å"Justice is a soul’s virtue† is what Socrates says in Book I of The Republic. The soul (which is rational) is superior to the body just as a good ruler is superior to the people he rules over. Both Aristotle and Plato have same approach on whether virtue has an essential role in the pursuit of happiness. Neither Plato nor Aristotle can imagine happiness without justice and virtue. The relation between virtue and happiness, according to Aristotle, is the relation between an activity and a product. When we consider the totality of his arguments in Book I, it becomes clear that virtue is the activity and happiness is the product. Happiness therefore is superior to virtue: virtue is how an individual reaches happiness. Happiness is its own purpose: it is a final state and all human activities attempt to reach this state. Whether Plato would make such a distinction is unclear. His definition of virtue is somewhat different from the modern term. According to Plato, virtue is not exclusively moral (even though the moral aspect is perhaps the most important). Plato defines virtue [arete] as what makes a good dog good, or a good horse good, or a good human good, etc (Republic, 10-11). Arete in this sense â€Å"applies to things (such as knives) which are not moral agents† (footnote, page 11). Socrates however, through Book I of The Republic, refutes Thrasymachus’ view that justice is simply the advantage of the stronger. Thrasymachus’ view is amoral and Plato rejects this view very strongly. From this we may perhaps infer that the most important aspect of virtue is its moral aspect. This definition of arete is also a description of the human function (i. e. what makes a human a human). The two philosophers, therefore, are in agreement on the issue that virtue, reason, and justice are significant aspects of human happiness. The four concepts are interrelated and each would be a good candidate for the human function. Aristotle formulates the human function as â€Å"the activity of soul in accordance with virtue. † Plato however does not reach at a fixed formula by the end of Republic, Book I. We are told that humans indeed have a function (just as organs like ears and eyes do, on page 29) and that it is impossible for the whole to be healthy unless every part is performing its function in a satisfactory manner. We are also told that every specific organ or individual has a specific kind of virtue without which they would â€Å"perform their function badly† (Republic, 30). The final addition to this argument is that it is impossible for a human being to be happy without the exercise of virtue and justice (Republic, 31). However, the exact definition of justice (without which it is impossible to define happiness) is not given at the end of Book I. Socrates makes an admission of this inability towards the end: â€Å"for when I do not know what justice is, I will hardly know whether it is a kind of virtue or not, or whether a person who has it is happy or unhappy† (Republic, 31). The two philosophers therefore share similar views on the nature of reason, happiness, justice, and virtue: all these concepts are interrelated and necessary for each other to exist. However, even though Aristotle gives a formal definition of the human function by the end of Book I in Nicomachean Ethics, Plato does not. He raises the question but the answer is not yet given.

Strategic Marketing Management of Nestle Analysis

Strategic Marketing Management of Nestle Analysis The purpose of this assignment is to evaluate the impact of organizational strategy in developing a marketing plan and to evaluate the component parts of a marketing plan. For this purpose a marketing plan for Nestle pure life (Bottled water by Nestle in Pakistan) is developed for understanding different components of marketing plan. Impact of Organizational Strategy on Market Plan It is very critical in todays highly competitive market to develop and adapt an approach that supports the organizations resources and nature of business. The strategy should be developed by keeping in mind all the available resources and should be so powerful that the product or service can outsell the competition. If the available resources are not considered while designing the strategies then it is quite possible that those resources will not be able to convert the inflow of customers in to profitable long term relationship. So it is very important to have a strategy that supports the resources and the expertise to implement it. Different organizations have different types of strategies, however most common are five significant strategies that affect the marketing plan of the organizations. Market Leadership Strategy If an organization has to maintain the position of market leadership then the marketing plan will be focused towards two main factors. First is to increase the market share and second is to keep intact the existing customers by providing them value to their money they are spending to buy the companys products of services (Kathryn, 2010). Market share can be increased by finding the new markets in other demographics or expanding in to the new locations. Another way to increase the market share is to attach the competitors market share through variety of strategies. Offering several value added services helps to keep the customers intact with the organization. In this case the marketing plan will focus towards the augmented features of the product or service. Market Challenger Strategy If the organizations strategy is to be a market challenger then the marketing plan will be focused towards the small unmet needs of the customers. The marketing plan will be very aggressive and the focus will be to increase the market share in small chunks and to target the customers by promoting those features which are fulfilling their unmet needs (Kathryn, 2010). Market Follower Strategy If an organization is following market follower strategy then the marketing plan will not be very aggressive (Dibb, 2001). The markets are already identified and researched by the competitors and the market plan will target those weak points which are left by the competitors and the better solutions will be provided to the customers. Market Niche Strategy Organizations can also divide the market in to small segments/chunks and prepare the marketing plan for each segment. This allows the organization to influence the customers more deeply with the marketing campaign as the focus is on a particular segment. For instance the marketing plan of a cosmetic can target the women between the age limit of 20-25 years. Alliance Strategy The organization can also form strategic alliances to increase the impact of the marketing plan. The strategic alliances enables the organization to offer new products or value added services to the customers and the marketing plan focuses on promoting the benefits of the alliance of the organization to the customers (Kotler, 2003). Component Parts of a Marketing Plan Marketing plan refers to that document which outlines the actions and details that are required to be undertaken in order to achieve one or more marketing objectives. Marketing plan can either be for a brand, or for a product or service or even for a whole product line. Marketing plans can cover the marketing objectives of up to five years and the marketing objectives are aligned with the organizational objectives. Following are the main components of a marketing plan. Situation Analysis Situation analysis is very important and initial part for developing a marketing plan. It explains and clarifies the current position of the organization in the market. This analysis should be done fairly by the organization as exaggerating the current market position in front of the management will ultimately give a failure at the end of marketing campaign. Situation Analysis involves external, internal and customers analysis (Ward, 2010). SWOT Analysis SWOT analysis is another major part of the marketing plan as it identifies the strengths and weaknesses of the organization and the opportunities and threats for the organization. It also helps to determine the current state of the organization, but it also adds the opportunities and threats to the organization which can be focused in the marketing plan (Dibb, 2001). Marketing Goals and Objectives After SWOT analysis the organization is in much better position to set the marketing objectives and goals. Goals are the overall accomplishment that is likely to be achieved by the organization and the objectives are the benchmarks which enables the organization to meet those goals (Ward, 2010). It is very important the goals and objectives should be realistic and should reflect the mission of the company. Marketing Strategies In marketing strategy the marketing mix and the target market is discussed. Product features, placement, pricing and distribution are the four main aspects of any product or service and the marketing plan contains the blend of these strategies and marketing strategy is designed keeping in mind the target audience (Kotler, 2003). Implementation Implementation planning is another important part of the marketing plan. At first it is described that what is required to be done internally in order to get success such as employee training, employees empowerment etc. for the success of market plan. Secondly, a month-by-month marketing calendar is prepared that guides the marketing activities. Evaluation and Control Evaluating the marketing plan is very important, as this helps to identify that what is to be done in future and what not. If the marketing plan is of 3 to 5 years then periodic evaluation is necessary as changing market conditions can be costly while sticking with the old techniques. Evaluation also helps to identify whether the plan is implemented properly. Threat to Nestle Pure Life Different threats and weaknesses for Nestle pure life are identified in the marketing plan, however, the most critical threat and weakness for the product is the current economic and political condition in Pakistan. This threat is for every business operating in Pakistan, however, Nestle pure life has direct affect to the economic situation of Pakistan. As the target market of Nestle pure life is upper and middle class and due to increasing ratio of unemployment and poverty the people are moving towards the usage of simple or boiled water as spending Rs. 35 for water is becoming unaffordable for majority of middle class people. Moreover, there are several other local brands which are not up to the mark, but they sell the brand to the local market by assuring them about the quality and purity which decreases the demand of high quality product like Nestle pure life. This causes a serious threat to the brand in near future (Rosemann, 2005). Nestle Pakistan Limited Marketing Plan Nestle Pure Life Executive Summary Its manufacturing facilities are located in Sheikhupura, Kabirwala, Islamabad and Karachi, Pakistan. Nestle provides mineral water to the customers with an objective to provide value to the customers. The companys main target market is those people who believe that tap water is not hygienic. The company enjoys the highest market share in the mineral water industry of Pakistan however Pepsis Aquafina has been giving tough competition to nestle pure life. 1 year Marketing plan for year 2011 is developed distributing each activity in different months. Situation Analysis Company Profile Nestle Pakistan Limited is a subsidiary of Nestle SA, a Switzerland based company, aimed to build a based on sound human values and principles. In 1992, Nestlà © was the first company to dare to launch a mineral water, in five different countries at once. Nestle Pakistan is engaged in the processing, manufacturing and sales of products such as dairy, culinary, confectionary and beverages. The major companys products include NIDO milk, NESVITA milk, MILKPACK milk and ice-cream, Fruit yogurt; Everyday creamed tea, Cerelac and Nestle mineral Water (Nestle pure life). Mission Statement Nestlà © believe that research can help to make better food so that people live a better life. Objectives This marketing plan considers the following objectives of organization for its product Nestle pure life: To maintain the position as Market Leader. Increase the Market share. Exceed customers expectations both in terms of product quality and service. Create awareness of benefit of PET bottles and approach in rural areas. SWOT Analysis SWOT analysis helps to understand the ability of the organization internally and externally (Lyndsay, 2010). Blow is the SWOT analysis of the company: Strengths Strong distribution channel Skilled Labour Educated Staff Large number of Offerings Strong Brand Name Strong Background of the company Easy to approach Weaknesses Small Target market Lack of awareness among the target market Dependency of other government and sponsors for the arrangement of events Opportunity Favorable weather conditions (Summer most of the time) People love to enjoy eating ice cream Few and Weak competitors Threats Major players may enter in the market Legal and ethical issues Local mineral water manufacturers Economic slowdown and bad political conditions Competitors Analysis Nestle Pure Life introduce the bottled water culture. No doubt Nestle pure life is currently a dominant leader in Pakistan market in Mineral water Industry. Nestle Pure Life is currently dominating more than 80% of bottled water market share (Rosemann, 2005), when Nestle Pure Life start its bottled water business in Pakistan way back in 1998 on that particular time AVA was the major competitor in the market, but after a time period of one year AVA was acquired by the Nestle Pure Life and now currently AVA is in the business of bulk water. There are different brands of bottled mineral water but the most famous are: Nestle Pure Life Aquafina Sufi Kinley For manufacturing and distributing mineral water in Pakistan the company has to obtain licenses and have to follow the rules and regulations of Pakistan Standard Quality Control Authority (PSQCA). Particular in Lahore, gourmet is giving a very tough competition to Nestle pure life as their price is less than Nestle pure life. Moreover, gourmet is approaching the other cities and rural areas of the country and possibly will emerge as a strong competitor of Nestle pure life in near future. There are also other competitors found within a local market which include Sparklet, Acqacare, Pure, Aafi, Oura, Aabshar and many other local brands, but their market share is very low as compare to the Nestle Pure Life. Macro Environmental Analysis The Macro-Environment forces, which include political, Social-Cultural and Economic forces, affect the overall performance of the brand (Kotler, 2003). Political instability always matter in a market situation, there should be an investment security. PSQCA has approved Nestle Pure Life; Nestle Pure Life is also promoting the culture of humanity and higher labor as many people from Pakistan have got job in the different parts of the world in Nestle Food. No doubt Nestle Pure Life is a market leader, but some of the government policies affecting the marketing strategy of Nestle Pure Life as government closed many several companies by saying that they are producing un approved water for the people of Pakistan in the name of mineral water, but such kind of situation doesnt affect any marketing strategy of Nestle Pure Life because it is producing a water according to the standard which is approved by World Health Organization WHO. As far as Social and Cultural forces are concerned now the people are realizing the need of bottled water especially in cities, as they are more health conscious as compare to the people of rural areas. But now the trend is changing gradually the people live in countryside they also realizing the need of Safe and Clean water, they know that health is wealth, as Nestle is a dominant factor so they are using Nestle Pure Life as their first choice. Target Market On the consumer side the Target Market is: People who believe that tap water are not hygienic People traveling by road on highways, railways and by air Tourists or foreigners Middle, Upper Middle and Elite class Students of school, college or universities On the Business side target market is High ways, Motorways, railway Stations Airports bus stops hotels etc. Educational Institutes of the city, where students might interact Shopping centers and Market places Departmental stores and bakeries, General stores and others etc. Restaurants and hotels Marketing Mix Product Nestle Pure Life offers not only pure water but also pure Life because water is life and also purity is life Nestle has always been the symbol of purity. Nestle pure water provides a balanced mineral formula (on Average 150-170 mg per liter) Price Another strategy for success may be applied by lowering the price of bottles including bulk water bottles to attract more and more customers who may switch to its direct or indirect substitutes 0.8 liter Rupees 18 1.5 liter Rupees 35 Placement Distribution should be done not only in urban areas but also the rural areas of the country. Distribution in small cities of the country is also one of the distribution strategies of Nestle Pure Life. Promotion Nestle Pure Life is using integrated marketing communication. The Company has adapted both Push and Pull strategies and using mass marketing by Advertising i.e. using different types of Medias like TV, radio, magazines, Sales Promotion i.e. sponsoring different events, using billboards and involves in different social activities. Implementation This action plan will carry out the marketing strategy and achieve the main Objectives of Nestle Pure Life through a variety of Scheduled programs. Following activities will be held during the year 2011 to promote the Nestle Pure Life. Activities Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Invoices Income Recovery Incomes Trade sale Promotion Regional Offices Lucky draws Free Offers Research Advertising Data Analysis Educate Dealers Concept for bottled water Implementation Press and pour Offer New Stores Commitment Award Specific promo Contingency Planning There is variety of risks involved in the marketing plan. Following are some of the risks and their mitigation strategies for the marketing plan of Nestle pure water. Wrong Market Information In Pakistani markets the availability of complete and authentic data is very difficult. There are very few government sources which provide the market information, but those also cannot be relied upon as the data collection is not known. In case the data or information taken from the governmental sources is found to be incorrect then the company will rely upon the data collected from surveys and past trends. Outsourcing If the internal resources are not able to meet the growing demand of the customers then the production will be outsourced, but the quality will not be sacrificed in any case. Mismatch of Projections If there is a mismatch of the financial projection then the efforts will be re-doubled and the focus will be on direct marketing. However, the other marketing expenses will not be cut down as it is very necessary to keep conveying the message across the target audience. Nestlà ©s Organizational Objectives and Marketing Plan The organizational objectives of Nestle Pakistan are aligned with the marketing plan. However the change in the market conditions result in the change in organizational objectives which also reflects the marketing plan. The marketing plan discussed above tries to meet the following organization objectives. Market Leadership Nestle pure life is holding a market leaders position at the moment in Pakistani bottled water market. The marketing plans objective is also to maintain this position and to increase the market share by targeting the rural areas along with the urban areas. For this the distribution network is planned to be stronger in small cities and villages. Safety The objective of the organization is to provide the customers with safe drinking water. Nestle brand provides the customers reassurance which they demand for fulfilling their most basic and important need. Marketing plan of Nestle pure life also focuses on educating the dealers and consumers directly about the benefits of mineral water. Healthy Product The formula developed for Nestle pure life contains minerals such as calcium, which is essential for bone development and promotion of this benefit through media and direct marketing team reflects in the marketing plan and fulfills this organizational objective. Affordable Mineral Water Another objective of the company is to provide the mineral water to the target customer at affordable prices. The prices of all the formats of the mineral water bottles are very affordable for the target market and that is the reason Nestle pure lifes market share is highest in Pakistan. Convenient availability Nestlà ©s objective is to make the mineral water available to the consumers almost everywhere. Marketing Plan of Nestle pure life target the customers at different location like railway station, schools, colleges, airports etc. which fulfills the product availability objective of the organization. Publicity and Promotion Strategy for Nestle Pure Life Nestle is using different strategies for the promotion and publicity for Nestle Pure life. Below is the brief description of all the strategies used by Nestle Pure Life. Push Strategy The company is using push strategy by using the sales force and promoting the product to the wholesalers and dealers. The Nestle cooler is one of the example in this regard as the dealers sells and provide the coolers with Nestle pure life brand and that promotes the product. This type of strategy is mostly used for the corporate clients like different companies, banks etc. in which the Nestle Pure Life branded coolers are placed and the bottles are refilled by the dealers/company representatives periodically. Pull Strategy The company is also using pull strategy by directly communicating to the consumers through high advertisement through different channels. This results in the walk-in of the customers in the outlets and other distribution channels asking for the product. Above the Line (ATL) Company advertise above the line by using different TV channels, radio, newspapers, billboards etc. Below the Line (BTL) Company advertise below the line as well by distributing the fliers, through internet (Facebook), placing outlets at roadsides etc. Mass Marketing The company is also using Mass marketing where the whole market is communicated the same product. The company through different media channels communicates to all the market of Pakistan by ignoring the segments and target market as being human beings all the people are the potential customers of the product. Integrated Marketing Communication The company also assures that all the features and benefits of the product are communicated to the customers. Through advertisement campaigns the company conveys a message of purity and safety to the customers and also explains the ingredients of the product which are beneficial for the human body.

Attention Deficit Disorder :: essays research papers fc

Attention Deficit Disorder   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  For centuries children have been grounded, beaten, or even killed for ignoring the rules or not listening to what they're told. In the past it was thought these †bad† kids were the products of bad parenting, bad environment, or simply being stubborn, however it is now known that many of these children may have had Attention Deficit Disorder, or A. D. D., and could've been helped. A. D. D. is a syndrome that affects millions of children and adults in the United States and is a very frustrating and confusing syndrome that often goes undiagnosed. While there is no clear-cut definition of A. D. D., it's known that it's a genetic disorder that affects males more often than females, in a 3:1 ratio, and is marked by a classic triad of symptoms, which are impulsivity, distractibility, and hyperactivity (Hallowell 6). There are two general types of A. D. D., the stereotypical, high-energy, hyperactive group, and the less known underactive ones that often daydream and are never mentally present anywhere. Typically, people with A. D. D. are very likable and are usually very emphatic, intuitive, and compassionate, however they have very unstable moods that can range from an extreme high to an extreme low instantly, for no apparent reason. Usually, they procrastinate often and have trouble finishing projects, while conversely, they can hyperfocus at times and accomplish tasks more quickly and efficiently than a normal person could. Often they have short tempers and lack the impulse to stop themselves from blowing up over minor details (Hallowell 10). Although A. D. D. has just recently been discovered and there is still relatively little known about it, it has an interesting history. In 1902, George Frederic Still first thought that the dilemma of problem children was a biological defect inherited from an injury at birth and not the result of bad parenting. In the 1930's and '40's stimulant drugs were first used to successfully treat many behavior problems due partly to Still's hypothesis. In 1960, Stella Chess further boosted research in the field by writing about the â€Å" hyperactive child syndrome.† She stated that the behavior problems weren't a product of injury at birth, but instead were inherited genetically. Finally, in 1980, the syndrome was named A. D. D., due in large part to Virginia Douglas' work to find accurate ways to diagnose it (Hallowell 12). Formally, A. D. D. comes in two types: A. D. D. with hyperactivity and A. D. D. without hyperactivity (Hallowell 9). However there are several other subtypes that are used to diagnose the syndrome and aren't formally recognized.

The Great Gatsby and The Wasteland Essay -- Fitzgerald Elliott English

The Great Gatsby and The Wasteland Fitzgerald’s Great Gatsby and Elliot’s The Wasteland are two stories that similarly express the modernist post-war disillusionment. Both stories comment pessimistically on the direction that our world is moving in from the post-war modernist perspective. Both men looked past the roaring twenties, and realized that this time period was actually a moral wasteland. The final paragraphs of The Great Gatsby sum up their mutual lack of faith in American culture to improve.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Fitzgerald uses a number of both direct and indirect ways to comment on what has happened to America. The green light is a recurring symbol in this book that has many deep meanings. Beginning in the first chapter, when Nick compares the green bulk of America rising from the ocean to the green light at the end of Daisy’s dock, this symbol takes on many meanings. This is the green light that drives Gatsby, this is the green light symbolizes the new money and materialism in the world. This shows that money is now the new driving force in the world, and that people work to consume. This ties into the fact that Gatsby went to great lengths to become rich solely to impress Daisy with his wealth. Additionally, Gatsby showed off this wealth by showing her all of the shirts that he had purchased. All of this points towards the emerging consumerism in American society.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The green also seems to symbolize the automotive industry, which was one of the biggest parts of the new consumer culture. Henry Ford made a policy of paying his workers high wages, because he realized that if they were paid more, they themselves would become consumers of his products. Today, cars are often seen as a status symbol, which began back in the 1920’s.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Wasteland of Elliot’s is analogous to the valley of ashes between West Egg and New York City. It is an industrial wasteland that was clearly created by large corporations and industries. This valley of ashes symbolizes the moral decay created by limitless pursuit of wealth. The valley of ashes is a place inhabited by the poor, and polluted by the rich. This shows that the only people who have to accept the consequences of corporate greed are the working class themselves.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Elliot’s The Wasteland describes Europe as a very bleak place after the First World War. In the final section, the speaker bothers Stetson about th... ...green light, the orgastic future that year by year recedes before us. It eluded us then, but that’s no matter- tomorrow we will run faster, stretch our arms farther†¦ and one fine morning-   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Nick comments once again on Gatsby’s pursuit of this perfect future that will never materialize. He also says that this our world is deteriorating even further, but expresses some hope for the future. He expresses optimism not in our culture, but in human beings to strive for improvement. Nick ties up all of the sentiments on this page with the conclusion â€Å"so we beat on, boats against the current, borne back ceaselessly into the past.† This statement ties back into the idea that people will strive to improve themselves, but the state of things are so bleak that it is like trying to row upstream. It also means that while people try to work for a perfect future, the best they can hope for is to be â€Å"borne back ceaselessly into the past.† Elliot and Fitzgerald share a mutual pessimism regarding society, but a confidence in individuals. They both share a very modernistic take on the post-war world, and hope that the power of individuals can break through the restraints of their society.

Education: A Path to Gender Equality in Labor Markets Essay examples --

Human capital is a fundamental labor force. Thus, encouraging greater female participation or reinforcing gender equality in labor markets worldwide will lead to gains in productivity. However, what can be done to create gender equality? A study emphasized the equality of education. When education access to women is equal to men, occupation opportunities and earnings of men and women with similar education and experience are equal. A research in Pakistan and other studies are introduced. Their findings suggest that education plays a vital part in gender equality in labor force. In another word, education can be a path to gender equality in labor markets. For education to be a path to gender equality, it must benefit woman equally to man. But the benefit of education depends on the equality of education including equality of access and equality in the learning process. Equality of access means that both genders are offered to gain access to formal, informal or other methods to the primary education. The actual attendance can be a preference to decide if the access has been approached. Equality in the learning process means that girls and boys are treated equally and have equal opportunities to learn. Even though the lessons may be approached to individuals in different learning styles, boys and girls should be exposed to the same curriculum. Also, the lesson materials which are brought to them should be free of stereotypes and gender bias. Moreover, boys and girls should have the freedom to learn, to explore and to develop their ability in all academic and extracurricular fields. When equality of access and equality in the learning pr ocess are achieved, the status of men and women and their ability to contribute to, take part in e... .... United Nations Population Fund. 2005. Web. 8th April. 2011. Melkas, Helina, et all. Towards Gender Equity in Japanese and Nordic Labor Markets: A Tale of Two Paths. July 2003. Web. 8th April. 2011. Malhotra, Anju, et all. Impact of investments in female education on gender equality. International Center for Research on Women. 27th August. 2003. Web. 8th April. 2011. Percheski, Christine. â€Å"Opting out? Cohort Differences in Professional Women's Employment Rates from 1960 to 2005.†American Sociological Review Vol. 73, No. 3 (Jun., 2008), pp. 497-517. Print. Sathar, Zeba, et all. â€Å"Women's Status and Fertility Change in Pakistan.† Population and Development Review. Vol. 14, No. 3 (Sep., 1988), pp. 415-432. Print. Tempon, Mery, et all. Ed. Girls’ Education in the 21st Century: Gender equality, Empowerment, And Economic Growth. The World Bank, 2008. Print.

Best Friend Becomes Enemy

Best friend becomes enemy. It was first day of summer. School almost finished. It was sunny and windy day. I was happy that school almost finished. My friend and I were sitting at the park. We were planning how to spend this long summer. George, my friend, gave me many plans for this summer but I didn’t agree with him. He was a lazy gay. His plan was: sleep till 11 a. m. , and then play video games till 5 p. m. and then go to sleep. He says that this must continue every day. I didn’t like it and gave him some advices for summer.My plan for summer was: Find a good job and work there for two month, and then if we collect our money, we can buy whatever you want. He didn’t like my plan but he agreed. We found a job. Our job was in restaurant. They were giving us $10 per hour. We like it and started work there. It was hard to work there. I was a cashier and my friend was dishwasher. He had a very easy job but he tells me it is hard. He quit restaurant but I still was working there. One month passed and I already collected $3,600. I could do what I want with that money but I save it. I spent just $600 for eating. I continued my job with restaurant.Another month also passed and now I had $6,600. I didn’t know what to do with this money. I could bring my whole family to US. I could start my own business with my father. I could do what I want with this money. I quit restaurant because of my father. There were two reasons why I quit restaurant. First was: School year almost started and I need to prepare for school. And second reason was: my father thought that I will stop study at school while I am working in restaurant. So I quit restaurant. I was sad bud I had too much money for this two month and it was one of the best summer I had ever.One day I was going to Safeway to buy bread. I saw George at restaurant with his girlfriend and he was showing his muscles to her. I walk through there and sat with them. They were talking about how they spe nt their summer. George lied to her that he was working at restaurant and will give present to her when school will start. I left restaurant and didn’t want to talk with George anymore and I come back said â€Å"a layer†. His girlfriend also left restaurant. I felt bad to George. I bought bread from Safeway. While I was walking to home I found a place where I can linger. I found a park which I didn’t know.I sat on grass because there was no place to sit. I was nervous and really nervous. I came home and there was a note from my mother. I looked for it and there was written like that: â€Å"don’t worry Jack; I will come back at 11 p. m. †. For that moment I started to worry. My phone rang and it was strange number which I didn’t know. I answered for the phone and there was strange voice. Strange man said: -â€Å"Are you Jack? † -â€Å"Yes, it is me† -â€Å"Your mother is here† -â€Å"Where? † -â€Å"In my houseâ⠂¬  – Who are you? † -â€Å"I am not going to tell you. Now listen to me. You need to bring to me $10,000.And she will be safe. You have just 24 hours. † -â€Å"I don’t have $10,000† -â€Å"Ok, I will kill her. One, two† -â€Å"Ok. Stop, Stop!!! † -â€Å"24 hours† I didn’t know what to do know. I phoned to my father but he didn’t answer. I called to my brother but he also didn’t answered. I started to worry. How he took my mother? I was asking this question to myself many times. If he killed her. No, I need to have this money. I started to search from Interned how to make $4,000 for 24 hours. But nothing was there. Again I called my father and I told him that my mother is token by stranger and I need $4,000.He said â€Å"Hey jack keep calm I will send $4,000 you today and you will get it tomorrow†. Now I am relaxed. I went to look my $6,600. It was there. I played some video games and telephone rang. It was man who needs $10,000. -â€Å"Tomorrow at 8 a. m. at Mall. Your mother will be there and me too and don’t forget to bring money or she will be killed there. † -â€Å"Ok, don’t kill her. † I spent my whole time playing videogames but day was too long. I looked for mail and there was one box. I looked for it and there was money which my father sent to me yesterday. I was packing my money to be ready for tomorrow. I tried to spent my time bit it was too hard.I tried to sleep but I couldn’t because I was thinking about my mom. Is she good or not. Is she sick or not. I didn. t know anything about my mom but I will know it tomorrow. I woke up at 6 p. m. I wore my cloth and went to mall. There was one problem. I forgot my money which I packed yesterday. I went back again to home and took it. Now I was ready to go mall. I was in mall. I was waiting for a call. And suddenly phone rang. I took a phone and strange man said â€Å"I will be waiting for in Apple Store†. I went there and there were too many people. I saw my mom and George, my friend, near to her. He was holding a gun in his hand.And conversation began: -â€Å"Hey is it you George who wants money? † -â€Å"Yes, it is me† he said â€Å"Now give me my money†. I gave him $10,000 and he run away from mall . I didn’t call polis. I was happy that my mom safe. She was good and not sick. I wasn’t happy to George. He knew that I will make $7,200 from my job and I will get $2,800 somewhere. But it was ok. My mom was safe and it is important. I knew that he did it because I said to his girlfriend that he is layer and after this my mom was taken by him. I never thought that my best friend becomes my enemy. And I was unhappy because my summer was terrible.

Sociology 101 Study Guide Exam 4

Deviance 1) defining deviance is difficult and subjective (sociologists don’t agree). 2) for our purpose deviance must A) violate significant norms. B) Result in negative evaluation for reaction. 1) Conflict theory. – stress that the power elite uses the legal system to control worker and to stabilize the social order, all with the goal of keeping itself in power. The poor pose a threat, for if they rebel as a group they can dislodge members of the power elite from their place of privilege. To prevent this, the power elite makes certain that heavy penalties come down on those who’s crimes could upset the social order. 2) Functional theory- Argue that crime is a natural part of society. Stress that the sociall classes differ in opportunities for income and education, so they differ in opportunities for crime. As a result, street crime is higher among the lower social classes and white-collar crime is higher among the higher social classes. The growing crime rates of women illustrate how changing gender roles have given women more access to what sociologist call â€Å"illegitimate opportunities. † 3) Social foundations- Labeling Theory-questions who applies what label to whom, why they do this, and what happens as a result of this labeling.The significance of reputations, how they help set us on paths that propel us into deviance or that diver us away from it. Anomie Theory-concept developed by Emile Durkheim to describe an absence of clear societal norms and values. In the concept of anomie individuals lack a sense of social regulation: people feel unguided in the choices they have to make.Differential Association-a theory developed by Edwin Sutherland proposing that through interaction with others, individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques, and motives for criminal behavior (how people learn to become criminals).Crime 1). Elements – 2). Categories- Mental illness 1) Dr. Thomas Szasz – mental illness are neither mental nor illness. They are simply problem behaviors.2) Rosenhahn study-A study done proving â€Å"it is clear that we cannot distinguish th e sane from the insane in psychiatric labels might be a solution and recommended education to make psychiatric workers more aware of the social psychology of their facilities. In this study 8 â€Å"mentally healthy† people took hallucinations attempting to gain admission to 12 different psychiatric hospitals in five different states. All were admitted and diagnosed with psychiatric disorders.After admission they acted normal again and told staff they felt fine, all were forced to admit to having t a mental illness and agree to take antipsychotic drugs as a condition of their release. All but one was diagnosed with schizophrenia. The second part of his study involved an offended hospital challenging Rosenhan to send pseudopatients to its facility, which its staff would then detect. Rosenhan agreed and in the following weeks out of 193 new patients the staff identified 41 as potential pseudopatients, with 19 of these receiving suspicion from at least 1 psychiatrist and 1 other staff member.In fact Rosenhan had sent no one to the hospital Substance Abuse1) Types of drug use-2) Social policy-3) Conflict view-Individuals and groups in society struggle to maximize their share of the limited resources that exist and are desired by humans. Given that there are limited resources, the struggle inevitably leads to conflict and competition. These struggles can lead to changes in institutions and societies as different groups come into power. Social control- The techniques and strategies for preventing deviant human behavior in any society.1) Formal- Expressed though law as statues, rules and regulations against deviant behavior. Usually carried out by those in a position of power and/or authority such as a police officer, judge, or principal of a school.2) Informal- Denominates customs, traditions, norms and other social values inherited by the individual. Informal sanctions may include ridicule, sarcasm, criticism and disapproval. In extreme cases sanctions may in clude social discrimination and exclusion. Prejudice- An attitude or prejudging, usually in a negative way.Discrimination1) Individual- Treatment or consideration of, or making a distinction in favor of or against, a person based on the race, class, group, or category to which that person or thing belongs rather than on the individual.2) Institutional- The unfair, indirect treatment of an individual embedding in the operating procedures, policies, laws, or objectives of large organizations. Can occur without conscious cause, is often subtle and nearly invisible, reinforced by the interrelationship of social institutions.Example- jobs not hiring people under the height of 5’4† which eliminates most Mexicans and women, or in other countries women aren’t allowed to participate in some religious activities or government. Post-Industrial Society- Society based on information, services, and high technology, rather than on raw materials and manufacturing.Economic System s1) Capitalism-An economic system characterized by the private ownership of the means of production, the pursuit of profit, and market competition.2) Socialism-An economic system characterized b the public ownership of the means of production, central planning, and the distribution o goods without a profit motive. Genocide- The attempt to destroy a group of people because of their presumed race or ethnicity (ethnic cleansing). Minority-People who are singled out for unequal treatment and who regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination. Plessey vs Ferguson- Decision by the US Supreme Court that confirmed the principle of â€Å"separate but equal† and minority segregation.Brown vs Board of Education-This case took on segregation within school systems, or the separation of white and black students within public schools. Up until this case, many stats had laws establishing separate schools for white students and another for blacks. This landmark case made those laws unconstitutional. This case set the foundations for the civil rights movement. Exploitation Theory- occurs when one social group is able to take for itself what is produced by another group.The concept is central to the idea of social oppression, especially from a Marxist perspective, and can also include noneconomic forms, such as he sexual exploitation of women by men under patriarchy. Amalgamation-(melting pot) all groups should combine their traditions calues and characteristics with one another to create a new group. Assimilation-The loss of a subaltern group’s native language and culture under pressure to assimilate to those of a dominant cultural group.Contact Hypothesis-This is the principle that brings people together who are in conflict (or where one is bullying the other), the conflict will subside as they get to understand one another.Power1) Authority-Power that people consider legitimate, as rightly exercised over them; also called legitimate power.2) Tradition al-Those who exercise authority do so because they continue a tradition and support the preservation and continuation of existing values and social ties. For example Queen is Head of States in Britain, a position she inherited on the basis of traditional rules of succession for the monarchy.3) Rational Legal- Those in authority give orders (and expect to be obeyed) because the office they fill gives them the right to give orders. Anyone who fills the same position has the right to issue orders. Orders are only to be obeyed if they are relevant to the situation in which they are given. Example, a teacher orders â€Å"complete your homework by Thursday† the order is expected to be obeyed, but if the same teacher asked the student to go get her milk from the store, they wouldn’t be expected to obey.4) Charismatic-People obey because of the personal qualities of the person doing the telling. Well-known charismatic figures include Jesus Christ, Hitler, and Chairman Mao. How ever, charismatic figures may arise in any social grouping and such people assume positions of authority over others on the basis of personal qualities of leadership b other group members.5) Coercive-People forced to do as they are told under threat of punishment. For example a prison or a school classroom.6) Renumerative-Power rest on the material means provided by money or some other reward which the members desire and the organization controls. Government-Political authority; a group of people who have the power to make and enforce laws for a country or area.1) Monarchy-A state or nation in which the supreme power is actually or nominally lodged in monarch. The head of state is often for life or until abdication.2) Democracy-Have the consent of the people. The officials xercising power have legitimate authority because they have been elected, and the mechanism for changing the government is through peaceful and regular elections.3) Oligarchy-Political power effectively rest with a small, elitre segment of society. Greek for â€Å" few rule†4) Totalitarianism-The state regulates nearly every aspect of public and private behavior.5) Dictatorship-A government headed by a dictator or more generally any authoritarian or totalitarian government. Power Elite-C. Wright Mill’s term for the top people in U. S. corporations, military, and political who make the nation’s major decisions. Types of Work-